SUMMARY

In the period of 1923-1938, the legal and institutional organization related to agriculture was completed to a large extent. As in the first fifteen years of the Republic, the foundation on which agricultural policies are based was laid in this period. As a person dealing with agriculture, Atatürk knew the problems of the farmer very well. Atatürk, who saw that the peasants did not have enough land to cultivate, first wanted the uncultivated state lands to be distributed to the farmers who had no land, and then a general land reform in the country. Atatürk, who played a leading role in getting rid of the tithe disaster that the farmer had suffered for centuries, was closely interested in the modernization of agricultural techniques and tools in order to increase the production and the welfare of the villagers by cultivating all the lands of the country. He set an example for the villagers by applying advanced agricultural techniques in the farms he established. Atatürk, who attached great importance to the establishment of agricultural credit institutions in order to save the peasants from the usurer's oppression, guided the farmer as a founding member of an agricultural credit cooperative in Icel. Atatürk, who pioneered institutional and legal regulations related to agriculture, ensured the re-establishment of the Ministry of Agriculture in a more modern way in his own time.

Entrance

In the years when the Republic was founded, Turkish agriculture was far behind its 1912 level. For example, wheat production decreased from 3,788,000 tons in 1914 to 2,042,000 tons in 1922 (Eldem, 1994: 31-33; Tezel, 1994: 101). During the eight years of uninterrupted war, the country suffered a great loss of population. Relative to land, labor became an even more scarce factor. Only a small part of the arable land could be cultivated. The agricultural tools in the hands of the peasants were very backward and inadequate. Agricultural technique, on the other hand, did not go beyond the level in ancient times in many regions. The plow that the farmer plowed his field with was a very primitive tool made of wood with a stone or iron attached to the end. The seed yield that the peasant planted in his field was low and mixed with grass and other plant seeds. The peasants were getting the loan they needed from the usurer merchants with high interest rates due to the inadequacy of agricultural credit institutions. The tithe from the Ottoman period was a great burden on the villagers because it was collected on gross product and collected by tax farmers. There was a great decrease in the amount of crop production and the number of animals compared to before the First World War. In 1913, the number of cattle was 6,186,000 and the number of sheep was 16,079,000 (Ottoman Period Agricultural Statistics 1909, 1913 and 1914, 1997: 10). These numbers decreased to 4,000,000 and 15,000,000, respectively, between 1923 and 1925 (Tezel, 1994: 355). About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. The tithe from the Ottoman period was a great burden on the villagers because it was collected on gross product and collected by tax farmers. There was a great decrease in the amount of crop production and the number of animals compared to before the First World War. In 1913, the number of cattle was 6,186,000 and the number of sheep was 16,079,000 (Ottoman Period Agricultural Statistics 1909, 1913 and 1914, 1997: 10). These numbers decreased to 4,000,000 and 15,000,000, respectively, between 1923 and 1925 (Tezel, 1994: 355). About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. The tithe from the Ottoman period was a great burden on the villagers because it was collected on gross product and collected by tax farmers. There was a great decrease in the amount of crop production and the number of animals compared to before the First World War. In 1913, the number of cattle was 6,186,000 and the number of sheep was 16,079,000 (Ottoman Period Agricultural Statistics 1909, 1913 and 1914, 1997: 10). These numbers decreased to 4,000,000 and 15,000,000, respectively, between 1923 and 1925 (Tezel, 1994: 355). About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. There was a great decrease in the amount of crop production and the number of animals compared to before the First World War. In 1913, the number of cattle was 6,186,000 and the number of sheep was 16,079,000 (Ottoman Agricultural Statistics 1909, 1913 and 1914, 1997: 10). These numbers decreased to 4,000,000 and 15,000,000, respectively, between 1923 and 1925 (Tezel, 1994: 355). About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. There was a great decrease in the amount of crop production and the number of animals compared to before the First World War. In 1913, the number of cattle was 6,186,000 and the number of sheep was 16,079,000 (Ottoman Period Agricultural Statistics 1909, 1913 and 1914, 1997: 10). These numbers decreased to 4,000,000 and 15,000,000, respectively, between 1923 and 1925 (Tezel, 1994: 355). About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product. About 80% of the country's population worked in agriculture and had less income than those working in non-agricultural sectors. Agricultural sector produced about half of the national product.

Atatürk, especially after the National Struggle, focused on the problems of agriculture and peasants. In his speech to the farmers in Tarsus on March 18, 1923, he said the following about this issue: “Farmers … until now, three and a half years ago, you were the one who suffered the most among many elements of the homeland. Although you were the one who worked harder than anyone else, you were the one who suffered the most. Although the homeland mostly relied on your efforts, you were the least fortunate and happy. … It won't be like this anymore. …We all know that you are the majority of the nation…” (Atatürk's Discourses and Statements II 1952: 131). Again, in a speech he made in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on March 1, 1922, Atatürk emphasized the importance he attached to the peasants and agriculture with the following words: “…The real owners and masters of Turkey are the peasants who are the real producers. In that case, More than anyone else, it is the peasant who is deserving of prosperity, happiness and wealth and is the most deserving. Therefore, the political economy of our GNAT Government is aimed at producing this primary purpose…”(Atatürk's Discourses and Statements I 1945: 219). This is why great importance was given to the economic problems of the farmers at the Turkish Economy Congress. In his opening speech at the Turkish Economy Congress held in İzmir, Atatürk stated that agriculture is of vital importance for the Turkish nation and that using the plow means protecting the country's land: This is why great importance was given to the economic problems of the farmers at the Turkish Economy Congress. In his opening speech at the Turkish Economy Congress held in İzmir, Atatürk stated that agriculture is of vital importance for the Turkish nation and that using the plow means protecting the country's land: This is why great importance was given to the economic problems of the farmers at the Turkish Economy Congress. In his opening speech at the Turkish Economy Congress held in İzmir, Atatürk stated that agriculture is of vital importance for the Turkish nation and that using the plow means protecting the country's land:

“Friends, those who make conquests with the sword are obliged to defeat those who conquer with the plow and eventually leave. As a matter of fact, the Ottoman sultanate was like that. Bulgarians, Serbs, Hungarians, Romanians stuck to their plows, kept their presence, became stronger; Our nation was taken from land to land by the conquerors and one day they were defeated because they could not work in their homeland. It is a fact that it has happened in every period of history and in every part of the world. For example, while the French were waving swords in Canada, an English farmer entered there. In the sword fight with this civilized plow, it is the plow that is finally victorious. And he got Canada. Masters, the arm that uses the sword gets tired, finally puts the sword in its sheath, and maybe the sword will be doomed to mold and rust in the sheath.

In this study; Information about the efforts to make peasants landowners during the Atatürk period, the importance of the abolition of the tithe tax, mechanization in agriculture, agricultural credit, agricultural education, the organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, and studies on the development of plant and animal production will be presented.

Land Ownership Regulations and Efforts to Make Peasants Land Owners

A nation that won the War of Independence together and accepted the republican regime had to divide the land, which is the most important resource of the country, in a fair way. This was necessary both for the efficient processing of the country's lands and for making the income distribution more equitable and thus ensuring social peace. At the same time, the development and survival of the Republic and democracy depended on the elimination of the aforementioned distortion in the land ownership structure in a society whose economy was based on agriculture.

Since the first years of the Republic, legal arrangements have been made to reinforce private property on the land. According to the Constitution, the expropriation of private properties was made on the condition that the government pay the market value of the land in advance (Law no: 491, April 1924, Düstur, C: 5). Large landowners played an important role in the social alliance that organized and won the War of Independence. Republican governments initially started out in favor of large landowners. However, most of the members of the ruling intellectual bureaucrat cadre, from the very beginning, saw that the peasants' ownership of property and the economic support of the peasantry were beneficial in terms of their political interests and development policies. The land policy of the Governments of the Republic, it was shaped under the influence of the tides full of tensions between these two opposing tendencies during the period examined (Tezel, 1994:371-372). The 1924 Constitution strengthened private property. This constitution had provisions that made it difficult to expropriate private property. The Cadastre Law, which was adopted in 1925, also had the character of reinforcing the private property regime in land tenure. Finally, with the adoption of the Civil Code in 1926, while a new legal order based on private property was established, it became easier for powerful families, who had established de facto control over large agricultural lands, to register these lands as full owners (Çalgüner, 1971: 41-42). This constitution had provisions that made it difficult to expropriate private property. The Cadastre Law, which was adopted in 1925, also had the character of reinforcing the private property regime in land tenure. Finally, with the adoption of the Civil Code in 1926, while a new legal order based on private property was established, it became easier for powerful families, who had established de facto control over large agricultural lands, to register these lands as full owners (Çalgüner, 1971: 41-42). This constitution had provisions that made it difficult to expropriate private property. The Cadastre Law, which was adopted in 1925, also had the character of reinforcing the private property regime in land tenure. Finally, with the adoption of the Civil Code in 1926, while a new legal order based on private property was established, it became easier for powerful families, who had established de facto control over large agricultural lands, to register these lands as full owners (Çalgüner, 1971: 41-42).

The stance of the Republican period administrators against the feudal-like powers of the big landowners in the 1920s was limited to the eastern provinces. The event that prompted the government in this regard was the Sheikh Said rebellion that broke out in the east in 1925. During the Sheikh Said revolt, it was understood that the families leading the uprisings derived their power from the land ownership prevailing in the east, that is, from the feudal-like mode of production. In his opening speech to the Parliament in 1928, Atatürk instructed the government to deal with the issue of supplying land to the farmers who had no land, especially in the eastern provinces. He repeated this request in his opening speech a year later (Barkan, 1946: 60).

In 1927, the government enacted a law for the transfer of 1500 families from Eastern Anatolia to the western provinces for “administrative, military and social” reasons. The lands abandoned by these families to be resettled in the West would be transferred to the treasury on the condition that new land be given to them in the provinces where they would be resettled (Law no: 1097, June 1927, Düstur, C: 8). According to the information given by Prime Minister İnönü in his speech to the Parliament on November 9, 1929, 110 000 decares of agricultural land was distributed to landless peasants in the East, 20 000 decares of which were expropriated from large landowners, in the year the aforementioned law was enacted (İnönü, 1946: 200). -201). As can be understood from these explanations, the expropriation of private property and its distribution to the needy farmers remained mostly for political purposes and as a practice specific to the Eastern provinces. The land belonging to the landlords occupied very little place among the lands that were distributed. However, this practice did not lead to a significant improvement in the feudal-like production relations in the East. The issue of regulating the distribution of property in land was not emphasized until 1934. The CHP's farmer's grounding valley did not bring a serious and comprehensive application. The lands distributed were mostly in the form of giving land to the peasants from the treasury land. Towards the middle of the 1930s this attitude changed. From these dates on, the idea of ​​making a comprehensive land reform gained strength among the CHP leaders, who were uncomfortable with the current distribution of land ownership and production relations in Turkey. The issue of regulating the distribution of property in land was not emphasized until 1934. The CHP's farmer's grounding valley did not bring a serious and comprehensive application. The lands distributed were mostly in the form of giving land to the peasants from the treasury land. Towards the middle of the 1930s this attitude changed. From these dates on, the idea of ​​making a comprehensive land reform gained strength among the CHP leaders, who were uncomfortable with the current distribution of land ownership and production relations in Turkey. The issue of regulating the distribution of property in land was not emphasized until 1934. The CHP's farmer's grounding valley did not bring a serious and comprehensive application. The lands distributed were mostly in the form of giving land to the peasants from the treasury land. Towards the middle of the 1930s this attitude changed. From these dates on, the idea of ​​making a comprehensive land reform gained strength among the CHP leaders, who were uncomfortable with the current distribution of land ownership and production relations in Turkey.

It is understood that Atatürk and İnönü were closely interested in a general land reform in the country in the second half of the 1930s. Atatürk's opening speech of the Grand National Assembly in 1936 and 1937 heralded that a general land reform was about to begin in the country. In many of his speeches, Atatürk wanted every farmer to have enough land to evaluate their labor and make a living. Atatürk in his 1936 speech; “I expect the Land Law to come to a conclusion from the high patronage of the Public Council. It is necessary for every Turkish farmer family to own the land where they can live and work. More than that, it is necessary to encourage more production for the country by cultivating large lands with modern means” (TBMMZC, Circuit:5, C:13, 5), emphasizing the importance he attached to the subject.

In his opening speech to the Assembly in 1937, Atatürk stated the following in more detail: “The foundation of the national economy is agriculture. That is why we attach great importance to development in agriculture. Programmed and practical studies that will spread to the villages will facilitate the spread of this aim. The main important points that can be included in this policy and regime are as follows: For one thing, landless farmers should not be left in the country. What is more important than this is that the land that can support a farmer's family should be indivisible for any reason or way, the width of the land that large farmers and ranchers can operate, the population density of the regions of the country where the land is located, and the degree of fertility of the land. , C: 20, 1937: 4).

In this speech, Atatürk put forward three main principles to regulate the distribution of land ownership. These were: 1) Not leaving any landless farmers in the country, 2) Not allowing the division of the land that can support a farmer's family for any reason, 3) Limiting the width of the land that large farmers and ranchers can cultivate with reasonable criteria. These principles were included in the program of the Celal Bayar government established in October 1937. According to the government program, the draft law on the subject would be prepared as soon as possible and submitted to the Parliament for approval (Arar, 1968: 76). In 1937, some changes were made in the 1924 Constitution. According to this change, expropriation became possible in order to make the farmer the owner of the land, without seeking a prepayment condition. Thus, the work on land reform was opened (Law no: 3115, February 1937, Düstur, C: 18). However, on these dates, II. The start of World War II and the progress of the war to the borders of the country caused the land reform to be postponed for a while. II. During the years of World War II, discussions on the issue of reform continued. In İsmet İnönü's words, the efforts to prepare the law for “landing the landless peasants” continued during the war period. As a result of the studies, a comprehensive land reform law could only be enacted in 1945.

Until 1938, governments distributed substantial amounts of land to peasants. These distributed lands remained only state-owned lands, and the lands in the hands of large landowners were not touched. Between 1923 and 1938, a total of 9 983 750 decares of land was distributed to 246 431 families (Barkan 1980: 454).

These studies have contributed to the elimination of the distortions in the land ownership structure in Turkey to a certain extent.

Removal of Worms

In his declaration published as the President of the Anatolian and Rumelian Defense of Rights Association in 1923, before the Republic was proclaimed, Atatürk stated that the aspects of the tithe, which had devastated the villagers for centuries, would be rehabilitated. In the Turkish Economy Congress convened in the same year, it was accepted that the tithe would be abolished (Turkish Economy Congress, 1923, 1981: 394).

Although Âşar is a kind of income tax levied on agricultural income in principle, the levy and collection method applied also changed the nature and economic effects of the tax. Since Âşar included the gross product as the tax base, the tax burden calculated according to the gross product was very large (Önder, 1988: 119; Lewis, 1998: 461). Since input prices were not taken into account in this form of taxation, the price increase on the production input aggravated the tax burden on the pure product. Âşar became a very heavy burden on the people with the effect of tax farming (Yaşa, 1965: 202; Bulutoğlu, 1976: 141). It was tried to be reformed during the Âşar Tanzimat period. With the arrangement made, the tithe was standardized as one-tenth (Karamürsel, 1989: 168; Lewis, 1998: 461). The tax in question Despite the reforms made, the collection of tax farming continued after the Tanzimat. The amount of tithe was increased and it was increased to 12% of the gross product towards the end of the 19th century (Toprak, 1988: 22).

In the Republican era, the abolition of the tithe, which was a great burden on the poor people, was seen as one of the most important issues. In these first years of the Republic, the need for the development of the agricultural sector was well understood. During the long war years, the nation was starved. The development of agriculture was first of all necessary for the nourishment of the nation. More so, the peasant was regarded as the lord of the nation. The issue of improving the situation of the peasants, the largest part of the nation, stood before the rulers as a priority issue in the first years of the Republic. Therefore, although it has an important place in the state budget, it was decided to abolish the tithe tax (Bulutay-Tezel and Yıldırım, 1974: 39) and it was abolished on 17 February 1925 with the Law No. 552. Instead of Ashar, In order to prevent or reduce the loss of income that the State treasury would suffer with the abolition of this tax, another tax was imposed – tithes constituted more than 20% of the total taxes. This tax was to be collected at the rate of ten percent of the local price from the crops subject to tithe, foodstuffs such as flour, bulgur, and fresh fruits and vegetables transported sixty kilometers from the place where they were produced (Official Gazette, 23 February 1341 (1925) No: 84). The abolition of the tithe tax created great satisfaction in the villagers. For this reason, farmers showed great joy to Atatürk, who was visiting the country at that time. With the abolition of the tithe, one of the obstacles to agricultural development was removed. Since the farmer is freed from the heavy tax burden, especially the subsistence producers, they are better motivated in production, with the thought that almost all of the product will be left to them. As a result of this situation and the increase in the prices of agricultural products both in domestic and foreign markets, agricultural production in Turkey increased until the late 1920s, with the exception of some drought years.

Studies on the Modernization of Agricultural Tools and Agricultural Credit

Atatürk gave great importance to the modernization of agricultural techniques and tools in order to increase production and the welfare of the people.

Atatürk, who said, “Measures to increase, renovate and protect the construction equipment of all farmers, small and large, should be taken without delay”, considered it inevitable for the farmer to be equipped with modern machinery for advanced agriculture and to train them to use them, and he made every attempt in this regard (Atatürk's Discourses and Statements I). , 1945: 221; Sözen-Arılı, 1981: 62).

On March 3, 1924, the Ministry of Agriculture went to a new organization in order to provide better and wider education on agricultural methods and machinery. On the other hand, from the first years of the Republic, the State opened agricultural and machinist schools to train personnel who would use and repair machinery in order to encourage mechanization in agriculture (Avcıoğlu 1969: 229). In addition, the government, with a law enacted in 1924, envisaged that farmers, who were conscripted into the military, would be taught agricultural machinery and new methods during their military service. Again in order to spread mechanization, Ziraat Bank bought 70 tractors right after the foundation of the Republic and distributed 40 of them to the farmers; He put 30 of them into operation (Cumhuriyet, 5 June 1924).

In this period, while the state tried to set an example by using new tools and machines in sample farms, agricultural schools and stations, on the other hand, it provided customs exemptions and some conveniences to farmers who wanted to buy and use these machines. Machinery imported through the Ministry of Agriculture was sold to the farmer in installments with Ziraat Bank loans. As Deputy Minister of Economy Mahmut Esat Bozkurt stated, although many farmers had lands in the country, they could not carry out the necessary agricultural activities because they did not have capital goods, i.e. animals to plow their land, tractors, plows and other agricultural equipment (Grand National Assembly of Turkey Minutes Ceridesi, Circuit: I, A:26:110). For the development of the country's agriculture, first of all, the farmer's need for this capital goods had to be met. With the law no. 752 enacted in 1926, the tractor, It was accepted that the owners of motorized plows, harvesters, trucks and pick-up trucks would be paid "compensation for the customer's debt" for the fuel they spent in agriculture (Official Gazette, February 25, 1926). In accordance with this law, the tax collected from the fuel spent in agricultural activities has been refunded. While the Budget of the Ministry of Agriculture was only 3 million 722 thousand liras in 1927, the state paid 6 million 652 thousand liras compensation to the farmer using machinery in the 1926-1930 period (Avcıoğlu, 1969: 229).

It is stated that there were 501 tractors, 486 of which were state property, in the years 1923-1924 (Silier 1981: 20). This period was also the years when the prices of agricultural products were relatively favorable (Bulutay-Tezel-Yıldırım 1974: 70-80). The increase in the prices of agricultural products was an important factor encouraging mechanization in agriculture. According to the statement made by the Minister of Economy, Şakir Bey at the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on June 10, 1930, the number of tractors in Turkey in 1930 was 1844 (TBMM Minute Ceridesi, Circuit: 3, C: 20, 1930: 175).

Since 1929, the rapid decline in agricultural product prices during the years of economic depression made farming with oil-burning tractors uneconomic (Cumhuriyet 15 April 1928). In the years when financial difficulties and balance of payments deficits increased, maintaining these exemptions for a handful of large landowners lost its social and economic meaning for the government (Cumhuriyet, 3 May 1929; Tezel, 1994: 418).

Therefore, the government had to take new measures and abolished the exemption on petroleum and gasoline used in agricultural machinery with the Law No. The law also stipulated that those who use oil-powered tractors will be compensated because they will no longer use them (Official Gazette, 19 June 1930). The number of tractors in this situation was 1844, according to the information given by the Economy Deputy Şakir Bey at the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on June 10, 1930 (Grand National Assembly Memorandum Ceridesi, Circuit: 3, C: 20, 1930:175). The compensation included tractors and harvesters, as well as plows, disc plows, pumps and meadow machines, which are considered to be complementary to tractors.

On the other hand, the Ministry has made great efforts to supply modern agricultural machinery and tools so that small farmers can do their work more easily, quickly and perfectly. Between 1923-1925, he distributed 7677 plows worth 200,000 liras to the villagers. In addition, the Plow Law No. 1797 was adopted on 26 March 1931 to encourage domestic plow production. In accordance with this law, premiums were given to increase the production of plows in the country and interest-free, long-term loans were extended to domestic workshops (Official Gazette, 2 April 1931).

The effects of these incentives were seen in a short time, and the amount of plows in the country increased significantly even though it was far from meeting the need. The number of plows, which was 210,000 in 1927 (İsmail Hüsrev, 1934: 42), increased to 410,360 in 1936 (Statistics Yearbook, 1940-1941, 1941: 286).

It is understood that in order to equip the farmer with modern tools, other agricultural tools besides the plow are tried to be spread throughout the country. In order to ensure the mechanical cleaning of the seeds, which have a great impact on the increase in production, the Ministry of Agriculture bought 912 sieve machines worth 65,000 liras and distributed some of them to the farmers on the condition of paying in long terms. The Ministry tried to clean the seeds of the villagers by giving the rest of these machines to the service of the seed cleaning organization. The amount of seeds cleaned in 1923-1933 exceeded 20,000 tons (Gökköl 1935: 258). The Ministry of Agriculture has been working to popularize the selector machines that classify and clean the grain seeds in terms of weight and volume. The Ministry distributed 185 of these machines to various provinces in the 1930s (Agricultural Tools and Machinery Report 1939: 88). In 1933, other agricultural machinery and tools other than tractors, plows and plows were; 54,000 all kinds of harrows, 2,770 seed drills, 4,668 reapers, 2,235 mower-ties, 728 threshers, and 2,947 flakes and sifters (Statistics Yearbook 1940-1941, 1941: 287).

In the 1930s, Turkish agriculture was tried to be equipped with agricultural machinery and tools that were planned to be produced in the country. This practice is seen as a rational precaution considering the financial difficulties of the State at that time and the foreign exchange shortage caused by the balance of payments deficits.

Ziraat Bank, which plays the main role in the field of agricultural credit, is an institution that was transferred from the Ottoman period to the Republican period. During the Ottoman Empire, before the Ziraat Bank was established, the Homeland Funds had undertaken to provide loans to the agricultural sector.

Mithat Pasha, who was the governor of the newly created Danube province in the geography of today's Bulgaria in 1863, established the institutions he called Homeland Funds in order to meet the credit needs of the villages and small farmers within the administration area (Köylü, 1963: 300). The Homeland Funds had made significant progress across the country in a short time.

In 1883, an additional tax was imposed in the name of one-tenth of the tithe in order to provide a continuous source of capital to the funds, and the names of the funds were changed to Benefit Funds.

In fact, this organization, which was established for a very useful purpose, has deteriorated after 26 years of existence, due to the inability to get the debts back and especially due to bad administration. For this reason, the existing Benefit Funds were abolished in 1889 and Ziraat Bank was established instead. The amount of capital transferred from Benefit Funds to Ziraat Bank was TL 2,200,000. Ziraat Bank's capital was determined as 10,000,000 TL with the allocation made from the Treasury, and the bank's capital was increased with the additions made to the tithe, as was done before (Köylü, 1963: 301). Ziraat Bank, from the date of its establishment in 1889, until 1910, gave a total of 1,557,800,000 kuruş loans to 2,414,500 farmers (Güran, 1998: 155).

Ziraat Bank was the largest of the domestic banks taken over from the Ottoman Empire and was on the verge of bankruptcy during the founding years of the Republic. The government took the bailout of the bank as an important issue. The Bank's capital was transferred from the budget. The Ottoman Bank was allowed to extend a loan to Ziraat Bank. At the end of 1925, the new funds provided to the bank amounted to 7,000,000 TL.

Ziraat Bank's nominal capital was increased to 30,000,000 million TL in 1924. In 1925, 6% of the land tax collection was transferred to the Bank's capital account and the Bank's equity increased significantly. In 1930, the nominal capital of the Bank was increased to 100,000,000 TL (Tezel, 1994: 409).

Until 1937, the bank operated more like a commercial bank than a private agricultural credit institution. The law enacted in 1924 to regulate its functioning brought the status of a private company to the bank, even though its capital belonged to the state (Atasagun 1939: 215, Avcıoğlu, 1968: 232). In the 1920s and 1930s, the Bank's management limited the funds allocated to agricultural loans, where interest rates were kept low, and turned to commercial loans in order to make more profit. Ziraat Bank extended loans to mostly merchants and large landowners, and small farmers could not benefit from the Bank's loans (Cumhuriyet 15 October 1928). Nevertheless, the volume of loans provided to the agricultural sector increased considerably compared to before 1923. But between 1923 and 1940,

The government enacted the Turkish Republic Ziraat Bank Law No. 3202 on 12 June 1937. The status of the Bank was changed to a state economic enterprise. In the justification of the law, it was stated that the farmers who were directly involved in agriculture would primarily be given loans. There was talk of preventing the granting of agricultural loans to those who have no other function than to own land and who do not have an active place in agricultural production (Official Gazette 12 June 1937, No: 3629). The draft law, which aims to direct bank loans more towards small producers, was adopted after heated debates in the Parliament. The deputies, who owned large land, began to be disturbed by the government's economic policy because of the attempts to direct Ziraat Bank loans to small producer villagers (Tezel, 1994: 410). The 1937 law increased the transfers to be made from the central government budget to Ziraat Bank's capital account. Ziraat Bank's duties related to its operation as the top bank of agricultural sales and credit cooperatives have been expanded. The bank has been commissioned by the government in other matters besides its agricultural loan function. In the 1930s, the Bank also undertook tasks such as supporting the price of wheat, providing seeds, working animals, and production tools to poor peasants and farmers affected by natural disasters.

The most important difficulty faced by the small producer peasants in obtaining bank loans was their inability to provide sufficient individual security. There was no cadastre of agricultural lands in the country. Millions of peasant families did not have title deeds for the lands they cultivated. In 1924, the government passed a law encouraging the establishment of agricultural credit cooperatives, in order to enable the villagers to obtain bank loans through chain guarantees. The İtibar-ı Agricultural Union Law with 13 articles, dated April 21, 1924 and numbered 498, is the first legal regulation regarding agricultural cooperatives (Düstur, 3.Tertip, C.5, 1924 (1340): 1090. The short-term small agricultural loan is provided separately from Ziraat Bank. It is intended to be distributed to farmers as

In 1929, the “Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Law” numbered 1470 came to the agenda of the Turkish Grand National Assembly. This law has been prepared in order to find solutions to the problems faced by the “Reputation Agricultural Union Law” dated 1924 and numbered 498. The law numbered 1470, enacted on June 5, 1929, consists of 24 articles. According to this law, cooperative companies could be established in villages or villages with at least 100 households and a population of 500, and in towns and cities with "unlimited responsibility", "responsible up to five times their share of partnership". These cooperatives would be under the constant supervision of Ziraat Bank. According to this law, cooperatives will be able to establish “Provincial Unions” in the provinces. This law addressed Ziraat Bank as the main bank of the cooperatives.

During this period, while Atatürk focused on the development of cooperative legislation, he was also informing the public about the issue. For example, in the opening speech of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey dated November 1, 1929, he said: “We are particularly pleased that the Agricultural Cooperative Organization was started this year. We are rather obligated to extend these cooperatives all over the country” (Atatürk's Discourse and Statements I, 1945: 347).

The first application results of the law numbered 1470, which was enacted in 1929, delighted Atatürk. According to this law, the first Agricultural Credit Cooperative was established on September 18, 1929 in the Bulancak district of Giresun. Until the end of 1929, 64 agricultural credit cooperatives were established in Turkey. The peasant loved the cooperatives that brought cheap and informal credit to their feet. Eight agricultural credit cooperatives were also established in Adana.

Parallel to the law enacted on sales cooperatives, with the Law No. 2836 dated October 21, 1935, another arrangement was made for credit cooperatives. With this law, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives became organizations that work more regularly and provide better service to farmers.

Atatürk believed in the necessity of cooperatives, especially agricultural cooperatives, for development; He expressed his views and political determination on this issue in various speeches. Atatürk, who had an indisputable guiding influence on the regulations and practices regarding cooperatives, made the first important initiatives in terms of institutionalization; In this context, he pioneered the organization of an agricultural credit cooperative as a founding partner (Tecer, 2006: 76).

In 1936, as a farmer, Atatürk applied to Silifke Ziraat Bank on 30 June 1936 to establish an agricultural credit cooperative in accordance with the law numbered 2836, together with 36 farmers in Tekir Village of İçel. As the number one founding member of the cooperative, he replied with a telegram to the Prime Minister of the time, İnönü, who informed him that the establishment of the cooperative had been completed: “I am glad to learn that the proceedings of Tekir Cooperative, the first of the agricultural credit cooperatives, are over. I would like to thank you for your warm reminder of my participation in this cooperative as one of the few members. We expect Agricultural Credit Cooperatives to cover the whole country with your successful efforts” (Atatürk's Circular, Telegraph and Declarations IV, 1964: 576).

The number of agricultural credit cooperatives increased from 65 in 1929 to 589 in 1938; The number of members of cooperatives also increased from 4,000 in 1929 to 114,000 in 1938. The spread of credit cooperatives occurred mostly in coastal areas producing export products. With the establishment of agricultural credit institutions, the villagers had the opportunity to get rid of the pressure of the usurers to a great extent.

Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture

In this period, institutional and legal arrangements were made with Atatürk's directives in order to realize the agricultural development in a faster and more stable manner in Turkey. In this way, the issue of agricultural improvement was given to the authorized hands and the continuity of the works was ensured.

In the founding years of the Republic, the highest official organization providing services to the agricultural sector was the Ministry of Agriculture. This institution has operated in an independent status with its central and provincial units in some years, mostly within the Ministry of Economy.

In the period of the “Assembly Government” before the proclamation of the Republic, the “Law on the Recruitment (Election Form) of the Turkish Grand National Assembly and Executive Deputies” dated 2 May 1920 and numbered 3 was enacted; With this law, it is stated that the works related to trade, industry, agriculture, forestry and mines will be carried out by the Ministry of Economy. Within the Ministry of Economy, General Directorates of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine took place in relation to the agricultural sector (Zincircioğlu, 1994: 8).

With the 1st article of the "Law on the Organization of Agriculture and Commerce Ministry", which entered into force on March 25, 1924, the Ministry of Economy, which was previously responsible for carrying out agricultural services, was abolished and the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce was established (Düstur, 3.Tertip, C.5, 1924: 670). However, the Ministry of Agriculture was abolished again with the “Law on the Unification (Unification) of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture and the Organization of the Ministry of Economy” dated 16 January 1928 and numbered 1200; General Directorates of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine affiliated to him became the units of the Ministry of Economy again (Official Gazette, 16 Kanunsani 1928, No: 793). Later, with the Law No. 1910 dated December 30, 1931, agricultural affairs were once again separated from the Ministry of Economy and left to the Ministry of Agriculture, which was reconstituted.

The Ministry of Agriculture has been given the following powers and duties by Law No. 3203:

The Ministry of Agriculture is obliged to follow up the agricultural, animal and forest policies of the country within the state organization and to carry out the services related to the regulation, improvement, organization and development of the works related to these issues according to their economic status, and to perform the duties assigned to it by general and special laws.

The Ministry of Agriculture is at the disposal of the Deputy of Agriculture;

an Undersecretary,

Head of an Inspection Board,

A Special Registry Office,

A General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs,

a General Directorate of Veterinary Medicine,

A General Directorate of Forestry with legal personality,

A Legal Counsel,

Pamuk is administered by the Personnel, Material, Publication, Documentation and Mobilization Directorates.

In other articles of the law, the duties, responsibilities and authorities of the above-mentioned administrators are also determined.

With this law, legal arrangements were made in the fields of agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in order to remove the sector from its primitive position and ensure the welfare of the producer. In order to provide the services envisaged in these regulations, organizations were made especially at the provincial level.

The General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs, affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture, has a special importance in terms of the breadth of the duties it undertakes among the directorates within the Ministry. This institution has been an executive organ of almost all the decisions taken by the Ministry, equipped with powers and responsibilities in order to carry out the necessary work for the development of the country's agriculture.

According to Article 6 of Law No. 3203, the duties of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs were as follows:

To carry out the agricultural policy of the country within the directives of the Ministry of Agriculture, to organize and improve the agricultural production according to the economic conditions, to establish breeding, testing, production and cleaning institutions that will affect the improvement of production.

To fight all kinds of diseases, insects, animals and natural events that harm agricultural crops. To take preventive measures against diseases and insects that may pass from one region to another and may come from foreign countries.

To control, restrict and prohibit the import of all kinds of production vehicles to be brought from foreign countries and the export of those to be removed from the country.

To run agricultural irrigation business and to establish small irrigation and drying facilities for agriculture.

To work for the processing and valorization of agricultural products for the country and to establish and have the necessary installations installed for this.

To establish an organization that will revive and increase agricultural production and to take measures, to strive for the improvement and regulation of the village economy.

To organize agricultural education.

To make, encourage and control agricultural tools and machines.

To revitalize and supervise agriculture chambers and institutions

In addition to these, to do the work required by special laws and to see all kinds of services in the field of agriculture. (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630).

During the period under consideration, the number of branches affiliated to the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs has increased. The organizations in the provinces affiliated to the General Directorate were established under the name of Technical Agricultural Directorates and consisted of Directorates of Agriculture, District Agricultural Specialties, Agricultural Teachers' Offices, Agricultural Organizations, Agricultural Protection Organization, Agricultural Schools and Courses (Agricultural Ministry of Agriculture, A Brief Overview, 1954: ). The Technical Agricultural Organization, which was tasked with conveying the agricultural information obtained from various sources to the farmers and actually applying, displaying and teaching this information, was operating in 6 provinces in 1950 (Özek, Cumhuriyet, 8 July 1954). At that time, there were many institutions that were affiliated to the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs, operating in almost every region of the country, and conducting research on various subjects for the development of the country's agriculture. These establishments were growing and distributing the best quality seeds and saplings to the public.

Studies on Agricultural Teaching

Atatürk gave great importance to agricultural education. Even at the Turkish Economy Congress, it was decided to open an “agricultural school for higher education”. Again in the Congress, it was decided to show practical and theoretical agriculture lessons in leyli schools to be opened for nearby villages in every liva, to conduct practical agricultural training in barracks and military training centers, to distribute books and magazines teaching agricultural methods to the villagers free of charge, to inform the villagers by giving conferences about agriculture (Turkish Economy Congress). 1923, 1981: 390-391).

After the National Struggle, the first application related to agricultural education was mostly in the II. It took the form of re-establishing the first and second stages of the agricultural education system established during the Constitutional Monarchy period. With the Law No. 254 enacted in 1922 (Düstur, III. Order, C: 3, 1922: 177), Middle Agricultural Schools were opened in 12 places. The administration and financial support of these schools would be provided by Ziraat Bank, and their education and programs would be supervised by the Ministry of Economy (Ayas 1948: 641). These schools were established in Ankara, Bursa, Adana, Konya, Kastamonu, Erzurum, Çorum, Erzincan, Edirne, İzmir, Sivas and Kepsut within two years. In these years, when the first mechanization in agriculture was carried out in the Republican era, three-year Agricultural Machinist Schools were opened in Ankara and Adana, accepting primary school graduates (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 43).

Since the first years of the Republic, one of the most important reasons why governments have seriously focused on agricultural education has been the directives given by Atatürk on this subject. Atatürk drew attention to the importance of making agriculture with scientific methods, which he saw as the basis of our national economy, with the following words in his opening speech to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1926:

“Considering that our country is an agricultural country, it turns out that our main source of strength and wealth is land. We must boldly say that we have few specialists who have the scientific and practical power to ensure the development that our country is suitable for in the agricultural field. (Parliamentary Minutes, Circuit: II, C: 27, 1926: 4).

Considering these recommendations of Atatürk, with the enactment of the Law on the Establishment of Agricultural and Veterinary Institutes and the Master Schools and the Improvement of Agricultural Education in 1927, the reorganization of secondary and high level agricultural schools was started (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 43). With this law, it can be said that a new era has opened in agriculture in Turkey. Because, after this date, it was necessary to take radical measures in agriculture and it became possible to spread agricultural culture, to teach knowledge and techniques to increase agricultural production, and to bring new agricultural methods to the feet of the villagers (Mağden, 1959: 43).

Most of the agricultural schools taken over from the Ottoman Empire were deemed inadequate, and in 1928, when agricultural production fell very low due to drought, secondary agricultural schools were temporarily closed together with Halkalı Agricultural School (Tezel, 1994: 414). The teachers of these schools were sent to different European countries, mostly to Germany, to learn new agricultural knowledge and methods. With these teachers who returned to Turkey after studying abroad, agricultural education began to be reorganized in 1930. On this date, the Higher School of Agriculture was established. Higher Agricultural School students started their internship at Atatürk Forest Farm. Again, starting from 1930, a Middle Agricultural School was opened instead of the high school in Istanbul Halkalı. This school was followed by schools opened in Bursa, İzmir and Adana. Previously, those who finished primary school were admitted to these schools, while those who finished secondary school were admitted to the newly opened school. In other words, these newly opened Middle Agricultural Schools were agricultural schools in the high school setting.

The Higher Agricultural School, which was established in Ankara in 1930, was transformed into a Higher Agricultural Institute with the law dated 20 June 1933 and numbered 2291 (Official Gazette, 20 June 1933 Number: 2432). This Institute consisted of Faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Arts, Natural Sciences, Veterinary and Forestry (Ayas, 1948: 662). A large number of German professors were brought to the Higher Agricultural Institute. In the beginning, almost all chairs were headed by German professors. The courses were given in German in the first years. German professors served as chairmen until 1942, and after this date, the chairs were transferred to Turkish faculty members. A total of 1768 students, 1666 boys and 102 girls, graduated from the Higher Institute of Agriculture from 1933 to 1946 (Mağden 1959: 58). Valuable scientists and technical staff were trained from the agricultural education institutions opened in the examined period. However, in view of the country's breadth, the scattered settlement of the rural area in nearly 40 thousand villages and hamlets, and the limited means of transportation, it is clear that the agriculturalists trained in a small number of agricultural schools cannot meet the needs. On the other hand, one of the most important reasons that led to the limited agricultural development was that the governments of the Republic were not very successful in raising a sufficient number of technical personnel who had the tendency to work in rural areas (Tezel, 1994: 415). In the face of the scattered settlement of the rural area in nearly 40 thousand villages and hamlets and the limited transportation opportunities, it is clear that the agriculturalists who are trained in a small number of agricultural schools cannot meet the needs. On the other hand, one of the most important reasons that led to the limited agricultural development was that the governments of the Republic were not very successful in raising a sufficient number of technical personnel who had the tendency to work in rural areas (Tezel, 1994: 415). In the face of the scattered settlement of the rural area in nearly 40 thousand villages and hamlets and the limited transportation opportunities, it is clear that the agriculturalists who are trained in a small number of agricultural schools cannot meet the needs. On the other hand, one of the most important reasons that led to the limited agricultural development was that the governments of the Republic were not very successful in raising a sufficient number of technical personnel who had the tendency to work in rural areas (Tezel, 1994: 415).

Studies on Breeding and Development of Plant Production

In order for the villagers to increase their production and increase their welfare level, advanced agricultural techniques should be taught, seeds and seedlings planted in their fields and gardens should be of high yielding breeds. This judgment applies to animal husbandry as well as to crop production. Atatürk, in his opening speech to the Assembly on March 1, 1922, expressed the things that should be done in order to increase the welfare of the farmers with the following words:

“The owner and master of Turkey is the peasant who is the real producer. Therefore, it is the peasant who deserves and deserves prosperity, happiness and wealth more than anyone else. Consequently, the politics of the Turkish Grand National Assembly Government is aimed at producing this primary purpose. We must maximize the nation's time in farming with modern economic practices. It is the spirit of our economy to make the villager's netayiç and semerat-ı work exceedingly in favor of his own benefit. Therefore, on the one hand, it is necessary to work for the use and circulation of the information, documents and materials that will make the farmer's work bright and fruitful, and on the other hand, for the state of the economics that will ensure the maximum benefit from his working time (Atameçler Söylev and Dev. 1945: 219).

Improvement in field agriculture required organization in three stages. In the first stage breeding and testing stations, either new plant species would be found or improved. In the second stage, the most suitable breeding technique of the species in the trial stations would be researched and introduced to the villagers, and in the production farms that constituted the third stage, the improved seeds would be grown in sufficient quantities and distributed to the villagers (Gökgöl, 1935: 145). This development was different in different field crops. It was implemented by institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture in cereals and pulses, by a directorate specially established within the Ministry of Agriculture in cotton, by Sugar Factories in sugar beet, and by Monopoly in tobacco.

Governments of the Republic have enacted laws expanding the powers of the Ministry of Agriculture on these issues at different dates in order to improve the production of seeds in the hands of the villagers. These laws, dated 2 December 1925 and numbered 682, Law on the Free Distribution of All Kinds of Saplings and Seeds and the Exemption of Seeds from Customs Duty, dated 24 May 1930 and numbered 1641, to the Ministry of Agriculture and Administrative Specialties for the Establishment of Nursery. The Law can be specified as the Law on the Payment of Sales Losses of Seeds to be Procured by Ziraat Bank, dated June 2, 1930 and numbered 1682, the Law on Seed Producing Farms No. İlkin, 1988: 46).

As a result of this importance given to seeds, in 1929, at the station established in Eskişehir (Sazova) affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture, the first improved seed distribution was started with 5 tons and this amount increased to 20 tons in 1931 (Emcet Yekta, 1931: 828). . Apart from the Eskişehir seed breeding station, similar centers were operating in Adana, Adapazarı, İstanbul-Yeşilköy and Ankara during this period. After 1936, Kayseri Forage Crops, Antalya Warm Climate Plants Stations, Erzurum and Samsun stations were added to these stations, which were established in the first years (Statistics Yearbook, C: 19 1951: 268). Improved seeds obtained at these stations gave 20-50% more product than the seeds in the hands of the farmer (Toprak, 1988: 27).

A necessary institution for the dissemination of the results obtained from these seed improvement stations in a country like Turkey, where climate and soil conditions vary widely, is trial fields. However, these fields could not be expanded enough during the period in question. However, it was established in Ordu, Çorum and Erzurum (Statistics Yearbook, C: 19 1951: 268). Trials other than these were mostly made in farms and Agricultural Combines established by Atatürk.

It has always been a problem to produce enough seeds and distribute them to the villagers. The seeds produced in the seed production farms established after 1940 were insufficient to meet the needs. II. After the World War II, the farms donated by Atatürk started to be used as seed production centers. The exemplary farms that Atatürk established since 1925 were Forest Farm in Ankara, Millet and Baltacı Farms in Yalova, Tekir and Şövelye Farms in Silifke, Karabasmak Farm in Dörtyol, Pillioğlu Farm in Tarsus. Atatürk donated these farms to the treasury with a letter he wrote to the Chief Deputy on 11 July 1937 (Avcıoğlu, 1969: 179). The land assets of these seven farms were about 15 500 hectares.

In order to take over the administration of these farms, the State Agricultural Enterprises institution, which was organized as an economic state enterprise, was established with the law dated 1 January 1938 and numbered 3308. The purpose of its establishment was to help the peasants planting, fallow and threshing with an agricultural machinery and vehicle park and pesticides, and to accustom the farmers to modern agriculture by making agricultural struggles in their fields. The institution focused its work mostly on the improvement of grain types and animal breeds (Tezel, 1994: 415). Another institution that functioned to grow and distribute improved seeds to the villagers was the Agricultural Combines Administration, which was established on February 12, 1937 with the Law No. 3130. The other purpose of Agricultural Combines was to reduce the production cost of wheat by using improved seeds and modern agricultural tools (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 49). The number of farms affiliated to these two institutions reached thirteen in 1945 and the width of the land they cultivated reached 190,000 hectares (Mağden, 1949: 49-55). In the same year, 147,000 tons of wheat and barley were produced in these farms. While the production activities carried out in the combines made a significant contribution to meeting the grain need of the country, on the other hand, it showed that productivity in agriculture could be increased in a short time with better tools and techniques. Although ordinary lands were used in the inner regions of the country for dry grain agriculture in these farms, the wheat yield per decare obtained from these farms was 28% higher than the country average, which was 897 kg per hectare during the 1928-1950 period (Tezel, 1994: 354, 416). While the production activities carried out in the combines made a significant contribution to meeting the grain need of the country, on the other hand, it showed that productivity in agriculture could be increased in a short time with better tools and techniques. Although ordinary lands were used in the inner regions of the country for dry grain agriculture in these farms, the wheat yield per decare obtained from these farms was 28% higher than the country average, which was 897 kg per hectare during the 1928-1950 period (Tezel, 1994: 354, 416). While the production activities carried out in the combines made a significant contribution to meeting the grain need of the country, on the other hand, it showed that productivity in agriculture could be increased in a short time with better tools and techniques. Although ordinary lands were used in the inner regions of the country for dry grain agriculture in these farms, the wheat yield per decare obtained from these farms was 28% higher than the country average, which was 897 kg per hectare during the 1928-1950 period (Tezel, 1994: 354, 416).

The application of the correct fallow system is of great importance in the cultivation of cereals, especially wheat, in Anatolian lands where arid climate prevails. There are also less costly production methods than irrigation that can alleviate the impact of drought. This method is called Dry farming method. Dry farming is the method of leaving the lands that Turkish farmers have cultivated for a long time fallow (Ulus 8 July 1949). However, fallow is beneficial if it is done according to appropriate techniques. Dry farming, that is, dry farming method, is about making fallow with advanced techniques. This method, which is applied in the arid climates of the USA and ensures a significant increase in the amount of production, started to be applied in a facility established in Eskişehir under the leadership of Atatürk in Turkey (Gökgöl, 1935: 194).

Dry Farming Station was established in Eskişehir in 1934, after the agricultural engineer named Ali Numan, who was sent by Atatürk to the USA, specialized in dry farming and returned to the country. Dry farming, which means a kind of agricultural method in English, is an agricultural method that is applied in low rainy places with 200 - 500 millimeters of rain per year and gives confidence to the farmer, in other words, "agricultural method for dry climates". This station, which is the only trial farm in Turkey in its field, tried to solve many important agricultural problems, especially for the Central Anatolia region, to investigate the deficiencies in the grain planting methods that had been made until that day, to try new ones, and to spread the methods most suitable for the Central Anatolia climate conditions.

The aim is to work in accordance with the dry farming method and to greatly reduce the effect of drought. In the meantime, trying to penetrate the rain thoroughly into the soil, preventing the decrease in humidity, not reducing the fertility of the soil, finding the seeds and products that are resistant to drought and giving the best results, and adapting the necessary field works to the drought situation constitute the basis of dry farming cultivation method (Tayşi, 1940: 3, Gökgöl). , 1935: 195, Özek, Cumhuriyet, 23 July 1954).

In the station in question and in other agricultural research institutions established in the country, detailed studies on the work to be done on the crop after planting, the control of productivity with organic materials, the rotations with and without fallow, which product will be profitable and productive after fallow, various fertilizations, how much and how the seed will be planted. researches were made and the most suitable methods were found and tried to be delivered to the farmers (Gökgöl, 1934: 188-196).

Starting from the research phase in field agriculture, the model of trial and then seed production and distribution to the farmer has emerged in cotton production. The first attempt in cotton breeding started with the establishment of Adana Seed Breeding Commission in 1925. Since 1927, 40 cotton varieties have been brought from the USA and attempts have been made to determine the suitable cotton type for Turkey and to try to improve them. In 1934, a cotton growing plan was prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture and put into practice. According to this plan, seeds to be brought from abroad would be multiplied in breeding farms and distributed to farmers. For the realization of this plan, according to the law numbered 2582, it was foreseen that three million liras would be allocated to the budget in seven years starting from the 1935 fiscal year, and that the allocations for the first two years would not be less than seven hundred thousand liras each. These allotments It would be given for the establishment of farms to grow improved seeds. The law numbered 2582 was completed with the Cotton Improvement Law numbered 2903, which was accepted on January 27, 1936. According to this law, gin houses had to sell the seeds needed by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry at market value (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 51-52). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). It was completed with the Cotton Improvement Law No. 2903, which was adopted on January 27, 1936. According to this law, gin houses had to sell the seeds needed by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry at market value (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 51-52). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). It was completed with the Cotton Improvement Law No. 2903, which was adopted on January 27, 1936. According to this law, gin houses had to sell the seeds needed by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry at market value (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 51-52). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). According to this law, gin houses had to sell the seeds needed by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry at market value (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 51-52). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). According to this law, gin houses had to sell the seeds needed by the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry at market value (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 51-52). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686). The cotton business, which was managed as a branch of the General Directorate of Agricultural Affairs until 1937, was turned into a directorate directly subordinate to the Minister with the Law No. 3203 on the Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, adopted on 4 June 1937 (Official Gazette, 14 June 1937, No: 3630). By 1940, in addition to the ones in Adana and Nazilli, a breeding, trial and breeding farm was established in Eskişehir-Mayıslar and Malatya (Pamuk Committee Report 1931: 693; Kemal 1931: 686).

At the end of the War of Independence, the development of tobacco farming was emphasized (Ardıç, 1987: 384). Tobacco seed breeding and production activities in research trial stations started to be implemented by Tekel. The first attempt on tobacco breeding was the establishment of the Ziraat Science Branch in 1927. A trial field was opened in 1931. Ziraat Science Branch was developed in 1934 with the laboratories and all its subsidiary facilities in Maltepe, Cevizli, and it was turned into a Tobacco Institute in 1936 by the İnhisarlar Administration. After the establishment of the Institute, a tobacco improvement station was opened in Samsun for the improvement of Black Sea tobaccos, in İzmir (Buca) for Aegean tobaccos and in Malatya for Oriental tobaccos. Experimental fields were opened in various places in order to test the seeds improved at these stations. Since 1937, seedlings have been established in the production areas and free seedlings have been distributed to the producers. In addition, with the Tobacco and Tobacco Exclusivity Law No. 3437 adopted on 10 June 1938, Tekel distributed monetary rewards to the producer who produced the best tobacco in its region (Tekili-İlkin, 1988: 59).

Again in the first fifteen years of the Republic, Arifiye, Aydın, İzmir, Giresun, Antalya, Gaziantep and Malatya fruit growing stations were opened, with areas ranging from 10 to 20 hectares and working on apples, figs, olives, hazelnuts, citrus fruits, pistachios and apricots. At the same time, a nursery was established in Kastamonu, Niğde, Ankara, Erzincan, Kütahya, Çanakkale, Alanya, Tarsus and İzmir to grow apple, pear, apricot, cherry, almond, citrus, other fruit and ornamental saplings. A Mobile Olive Care Organization was established in each of İzmir, Muğla, Balıkesir and Çanakkale provinces in order to develop olive cultivation and graft olive trees.

In the field of viticulture, the 80-decare Erenköy American Vine Nursery was transferred from the Ottoman Empire to the Republican period. In the period under consideration, new nurseries with a total area of ​​1307 decares were established in Ankara, Bilecik, Halkalı, Kırklareli, Tekirdağ and Manisa. While 6725 saplings were distributed to the producer in 1924, this number reached 3 022 965 in 1938 (Toprak, 1988: 27-28).

The second important pillar of agricultural research is pest control. Since the first years of the Republic, there has been an organization for agricultural struggle. The Law No. 541, dated January 12, 1925, on the Destruction and Treatment of Insects and Insect Damage to Cotton, and Improvement of Seeds, and the Law No. 1056, dated May 28, 1927, which amended some of the articles of this law, Protection of Plants from Diseases and Harmful Insects, dated January 29, 1936 and numbered 2906. The Law gave the Ministry important duties and powerful powers in terms of agricultural struggle (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 52). In order to fulfill these duties, a Central Struggle Institute was established in Ankara, and a combat station in Izmir, Bornova and Adana (Toprak, 1988: 28).

As a result of the improvement and struggle studies on plant production, a significant increase in production was realized in the examined period. While the average wheat production was 972 000 tons in 1923-1925, it increased to 3,636,000 tons in 1936-1940. According to these data, the increase in wheat production was 274%. The rate of increase in cotton production, which increased from 44,000 tons to 64,000 tons on the same dates, was 45%. Tobacco production, on the other hand, increased by 51% from 45,000 tons at the beginning of the period to 68.000 tons at the end of the period (Tezel, 1994:355).

Breeding Studies Related to Livestock

In this period, improvement activities in animal husbandry focused on sheep breeding, angora goats, cattle breeding and horse breeding. The products obtained from the first three animal species are used both for nutrition, for domestic consumption as an industrial input, and for increasing exports. Giving importance to horse breeding is closely related to the introduction of horses instead of oxen as draft animals in agriculture. Livestock policy of this period; a) breeding of domestic animals, b) breeding with Arabian, Norius and English stallions in horses, montafon bulls in cattle and merino and karagül rams in sheep in appropriate regions (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 73). In order to put these policies into practice, it was tried to establish a system consisting of stud farms, breeding farms, stallion warehouses, cow houses and breeding stops (Batu, 1940: 21).

Karacabey Farm was established in the time of Orhan Gazi and was managed as a farm belonging to the treasury until the proclamation of the Republic. From the beginning, a large amount of sheep was bred here, sometimes the number of sheep reached up to 40,000. Merinos started to be brought to this first sheep breeding farm established by the state during the reign of Sultan Mecit, but the breeding process continued without being subject to any rules and methods, and this situation lasted until the Constitutional Monarchy. In the following years, rambuye rams and sheep were imported from France, and an unplanned reproduction was applied. This situation continued until the Republican period. In the Republican era, a more systematic sheep breeding was undertaken in Karacabey Farm (Kadri, 1931: 1706).

Regarding the breeding of sheep breeding, efforts were made to spread the two new species, merino and black rose, in the country. With the raising of Merino sheep, it was aimed to meet the fine and high quality fleece needed by the domestic industry from within the country. As stated above, merino breeding started in Turkey in the middle of the 19th century (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 74). However, it was not successful. In the first years of the Republic, the State had two trial herds, one in Karacabey and the other in Halkalı, a mixture of curly and merino, with different characteristics. In the examinations made on the herds in these farms, the sheep were not found to be sufficient for breeding, and it was suggested to bring new pure merino breeding herds (Kadri, 1931: 1738).

Bursa, Balıkesir and Çanakkale provinces, which have suitable features for the breeding of Merino sheep, were accepted as merinosization regions. This is a decision taken in accordance with the sheep breeding reports of the First Agricultural Congress of 1931 (Sheep Breeding Committee Report 1931: 1741).

After the adoption of the law on the Breeding of Merino sheep and the Production of Improved Cotton Seeds, dated July 5, 1934 and numbered 2582, a new breakthrough was made in the field of Merino sheep breeding. 360 rams and 500 sheep with meat-fleece merino quality were imported from Germany. From 1936 to 1946, Merinos Inspectorate Organization was established to accelerate the spread of Merino sheep in Bursa and Balıkesir regions (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 76). In 1942, the State distributed 2844 head merino rams to the producer. In the same year, the number of merino sheep in the hands of the people was about 17000 (Statistics Yearbook, C: 19 1951: 252).

Karagül (Bukhara sheep) was another breed of sheep introduced into the country in the early years of the Republic. This sheep breed, which is used for making sheepskin fur, was brought to Atatürk Forest Farm for the first time in 1925. 10 rams in 1929, 6 rams and 20 sheep in 1930 were imported from the Soviet Union. It has been tried to be cultivated both purely and by hybridizing with native curls. In the following years, Karagüllar were also grown in Atatürk's farms in Silifke and Yalova (H. Tahsin, 1934: 261).

The Ministry of Agriculture established cow houses in Çifteler, Uzunyayla, Lentil, Ilıca, İnanlı, Kozan, Boztepe and Göle in the early years of the Republic. In addition to these organizations specializing in animal husbandry, studies were carried out to develop animal husbandry in the farms of State Agricultural Enterprises, Agricultural Combines and sugar factories.

Although many hybrid species were seen as a result of the unsystematic entry of Simenta, Holland, Svic, Montafon, Egypt, Crimea and Aleppo breeds in the Aegean, Bursa and Kars before the Republic, the dominant cattle breeding concentrated in four native breeds. These were the eastern red race, the southern yellow and red race, the local black race and the gray race (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 74,77).

Eastern red was found in Northeastern Anatolia, which included Kars, Erzurum and Ardahan. This breed, which had high meat, milk and shooting yields, was suitable for development. Cows of eastern reds average 300-350 kg, bulls 500-600 kg. (Bilgemre 1940: 25). In order to develop the eastern breed in this region, Göle Cow House was established on an area of ​​20000 acres in 1936. For the same purpose, Kozova Cow House was established on an area of ​​54000 decares in Tokat in 1939, and 10000 decares of İncesu highland was allocated to this den. It was aimed to meet the breeding needs of the villagers with the bulls raised in these cow houses.

Native cattle in the Southern and Southeastern provinces were southern yellow and red breeds. This breed, which has the influence of Aleppo and Egyptian cattle, has high milk yield. In 1925-1926, red breed bulls of Aleppo origin were brought from Gaziantep to Atatürk's Tekir Farm in Silifke and tried to spread around Silifke. Since 1934, a herd has been formed in the Çukurova basin, and studies for the improvement of the native breed have been initiated (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 77).

The main indigenous race of Anatolia is the Black Squirrels. These races, whose pure samples were found in the Kütahya and Afyon regions, were common throughout Anatolia. Their weight shrank in the poor nutritional conditions of Central Anatolia. Average meat yields were 60-150 kg. Milk yields were also low. These cattle gave 500-1000 kg of milk per year (Tevfik Süleyman, 1931: 1752).

In this period, the common cattle breed in Thrace and Western Anatolia was the gray breed. This breed, which has a high attraction power, increased milk yield under good care. The milk yield of this breed, which is also common in Bulgaria, could be increased to 2500-3000. The gray breed was kept in the Tekirdağ-İnanlı cow house, which was established in 1929 with an area of ​​12250 decares, and breeding bulls were raised. Gray cows were also raised in Çifteler. A gray herd was also established in Karacabey.

Cattle were raised in the farms of Şeker Sanayi A.Ş. and breeding bulls were distributed to the producers. Gray cows were raised in Eskişehir Farm, which started its operations in 1935. When the annual milk yield did not exceed 1200-1500 kg, 40 montafon cows were taken from Istanbul and crossed with gray breed on the one hand, and on the other hand, purebred montafon was tried to be raised (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 78). Because the meat and milk yields of montafons are high. Average milk yield is 2500-3500 kg per year. between. The live weight of cows of this breed is 300-400 kg. while his bulls weigh up to 700 kg (Tevfik Süleyman 1931: 1757). The selection method was proposed as a reliable and inexpensive method for breeding cattle at the Agricultural Congress held in 1931 (Karasıgir ve Manda Committee Report 1931: 1764).

Another area in which animal breeding activities were directed during the Atatürk period was horse breeding. Horses were used in transportation since motor vehicles were not widespread in this period. On the other hand, since 1930, mechanization in agriculture was turned to horse farming. Atatürk stated that every farming family should have a pair of horses (Atatürk's Discourses and Statements I, 1945: 379). Another area where the horse was used was the army. The horse still retained its importance in the army's cavalry units and in the shooting of cannons.

Studs and stallions were established by the State for the improvement of horse breeding and the development of horse breeding. During the Ottoman period, Lentil Stud Farm was established on an area of ​​80,000 decares in Ceyhan in 1896, but this institution continued its activities until 1910 (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 74). II. During the Second Constitutional Monarchy, the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture wanted to start breeding activities by establishing stud studs and stallions, and the first state stud farm was established in the Aziziye area of ​​Çifteler. Due to the First World War, this stud could not be activated (Nurettin, 1931: 1772). In Turkey, apart from Karacabey Stud Farm, Sultansuyu Stud Farms were established in 1928, Çukurova (Lentils) in 1929, and Cifteler in Konya in 1934 (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 74). In 1931, there were two stallion warehouses in Erzurum and Tekirdağ. In addition to these, there were small stallion warehouses in 31 provinces (Nurettin, 1931: 1784). The stud farms, which were managed with appropriations from the general budget until 1926, became managed with their own revenues with the enactment of the Law No. 867 this year. In the examined period, there were influences of many races from Anatolian horses such as Arabian, Persian, Hungarian, Russian, French and English horses. Generally, the horses in Turkey were small in size, agile, fed little food and resistant to local diseases. Although they had the advantage of complying with the conditions of the country, stronger and bulkier horses were needed for the army's need and for pulling heavy agricultural equipment. For the breeding of domestic horses, both the selection method and the contact of breeders brought from abroad with domestic horses were applied. In the established stud farms and stallion warehouses, a breeding path was followed, focusing on Arabian horses and nonius (Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 74.79).

While the Ministry of Agriculture made 1071 adjectives (fertilization, breeding) with 31 stallions in 1921, it was able to make 28,000 adjectives with 800 stallions in 1937 in stallion warehouses and stations. In the breeding activities of horses, the castration of the stallions that are not suitable for breeding has been considered as an important issue. For this purpose, 300,000 male colts and stallions were emasculated until 1937 in order to remove unsuitable horses from the field of activity (Nurettin, 1931: 1783; Tekeli-İlkin, 1988: 80). According to the First Agricultural Congress Equine Committee Report in 1931, for the development of equine breeding, it was recommended to bestow (emergency) male animals that are not suitable for breeding, to increase the veterinary staff, to increase the production of animal feed such as alfalfa and oats for feeding horses, and to apply the selection method for the breeding of horses. Council Report 1931: 1809).

The fight against animal diseases has an important place in the development of domestic livestock. The first organization on this subject was started with the establishment of Bacteriology House-i Baytari in 1901, upon the spread of Rinderpest. Upon the increase in the damage of Rinderpest in the eastern provinces, a serum laboratory was established in Erzincan in 1911 and serum preparation was started to be sufficient for 50,000 animals (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 80). As the need for Rinderpest serum increased during World War I, serum production was increased to 150,000 doses. The development of the fight against animal diseases around Rinderpest was due not only to the high loss of livestock from this disease, but also to its agricultural function as a draft animal. During the Republican period, Ankara Etlik Institute was added to these two institutions in 1924. In addition, quarantine stations were established to prevent the spread of animal diseases (Toprak 1988: 29). In the 1940s, regional laboratories were opened in Istanbul, Bursa, Izmir and Mersin, and animal hospitals were opened in Adana, Eskişehir and Konya. Thanks to this organization, the variety of vaccines and serums produced continuously increased, and in 1937, 5,500,000 doses of 28 different vaccines and serums were produced (Tekeli-İlkin 1988: 81).

As a result of the studies on the improvement of animal husbandry and the fight against animal diseases, the number of sheep, which decreased to 15,000,000 in 1923-1925 due to the wars that continued for many years, increased to approximately 20,000,000 at the end of the 1930s. In the same period, the number of goats increased from 11,000,000 to 16,000,000, and the number of cattle increased from 4,000,000 to 9,000,000. The increase rate was 33% in sheep, 45% in goats, and 125% in cattle numbers, respectively (Tezel, 1994: 355).

result _

Between 1923 and 1938, many laws and institutional arrangements were made regarding the agricultural sector, which constitutes approximately half of the national income. In the first years of the Republic, a series of laws were enacted to reinforce private ownership on agricultural lands. However, until the second half of the 1930s, no serious attempt was made to regulate the unjust structure inherited from the Ottoman Empire regarding the distribution of property on lands. In the 1930s, with the decline of the political influence of the landlords and the pressure of the increasing population, the need to regulate the land ownership structure, which became more distorted due to the world economic crisis, started to be discussed in some enlightened bureaucratic circles. Ataturk in 1937, He stated that limiting the areas of privately owned lands according to objective criteria to be determined and giving each farmer family enough land to evaluate their labor is the priority work that needs to be done in agriculture. However, a comprehensive land reform could not be done during his lifetime. The existing property structure was tried to be partially corrected by distributing land from the treasury lands to the villagers.

The Republican government, which boldly addressed the issue of tithe, abolished this tax, which was a great burden on the farmers, but could not replace it with a modern income tax.

Until 1929, there was a rapid progress in the mechanization of agriculture. The global economic crisis experienced at that time reduced the prices of agricultural products and made mechanization uneconomical. Since 1930, it has been tried to spread mechanization in agriculture, the use of tractors, abandoned and equestrian agriculture by equipping it with modern tools.

Agricultural loans were given importance in this period, and Ziraat Bank's capital was increased. On the other hand, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives were established to meet the credit needs of small farmers and their numbers and activities were tried to be increased throughout the country. In this way, it was desired to save the peasant from the oppression of usurers and to encourage agricultural production.

Many breeding stations, trial fields, nurseries, seed production farms have been established in order to increase yield and production by making agricultural production with advanced techniques. In order to improve animal husbandry, stud farms, barns, stallions, breeding stops and disease control institutes and stations were established. Significant results have been obtained in state-owned institutions with improved high-yielding seeds, plant and animal species developed in these institutions. However, the dissemination of these developments throughout the country started to be realized after the period examined.

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